4.2 The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson
The election of 1800 was the 1st clear choice for political parties.
After a tie between Jefferson and Burr (Who were both Democratic Republican), Jefferson won.
Revolution of 1800
Peaceful passing of power from Federalists to Democratic Republicans, demonstrating that the US Constitution works.
Jefferson as a President
Jefferson attempted to build federalist trusts by maintaining Hamilton's national bank and debt repayment plan (which went against his ideals)
He reduced the military, repealed excise taxes, and lowered the national debt (All Dem-Rep values)
Louisiana Territory was sold from France to the United States by Napoleon
Napoleon sold American territory because he wanted to concentrate on Britain and the Haitian rebellion.
The Entire Louisiana territory sold for 15 million.
This removed the French presence in North America, increased Jefferson's popularity, and decreased Federalist popularity.
The Lewis-Clark expedition expanded geography and science, improving US control over the Oregon Territory + Native relations.
Jefferson repealed the Alien & Sedition Acts and led an impeachment campaign against a government official.s
This impeachment campaign was mostly unsuccessful.
The threat of impeachment led judges to be more cautious and less partisan (biased to one side)
Burr gave Jefferson trouble for “abandoning” party principles
Formed a conspiracy in NY to try and secede, and also killed Hamilton
Burr eventually arrested and charged for treason
4.3 Politics and Regional Interests
John Marshall
Federal Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
Marbury vs Madison (1803)
The Judge sued Madison for not delivering the commission. Marshall realized the Judiciary Act of 1789 had given the Supreme Court too much power.
Effect: Established Judicial review.
Fletcher vs Peck (1806)
Marshall concluded the state could not pass legislation invalidating the contract.
Effect: The Federal government could declare state laws unconstitutional.
Dartmouth vs Woodward (1819)
NH wanted to change Dartmouth to a public college. Marshall said no.
Effect: Private institutions cannot be affected by a state government.
McCulloch vs Maryland (1819)
Maryland wanted to tax the National Bank. Marshall said no.
Effect: Federal laws are supreme over state laws, and the National Bank is constitutional.
Cohens vs Virginia (1821)
Cohen illegally sold lottery tickets; Marshall supported Virginia's conviction.
Effect: The Supreme Court could review state decisions involving the federal government's power.
Gibbons vs Ogden (1821)
The NY steamboat monopoly was declared unconstitutional.
Effect: The Federal gov had broad control over state commerce.
James Monroe Presidency
Elected in 1816, which marked the Era of Good Feelings (But it wasn't so “good feelings”)
Following the War of 1812, since the US was more self-sufficient, they didn't want UK imports to take away from US Business.
Tariff of 1816 raised tariffs
1st protective tariff in US history.
New England Opposed, whereas the West and South Supported
Henry Clay's American System had 3 parts:
Protective Tariffs, 2nd National Bank (1st expired in 1811), and internal infrastructure improvements
Madison and Monroe opposed federal spending on internal improvements
Panic of 1819
Economic depression followed the 2nd National Bank's tightening of credit to control inflation.
Banks closed, unemployment and debt imprisonment increased.
Westerners called for land reform against the National Bank
Feds faded into obscurity; by 1820, they didn't even have a candidate for president.
Western statehood (Hi, Missouri) led to debates on Slavery.
Congress tried to maintain a balance between the Northern and Southern states (Vermont and Kentucky)
Land acquisition, economic pressures, and improvements in immigrants and transportation led the westward movement.
Missouri Compromise
Missouri as a Slave State, Maine as a Free State to keep the balance, and no Slavery north of the 36 30 line.
Foreign Policy advanced US interests while maintaining peace.
4.4 America on the World Stage
Jefferson attempted to uphold neutrality, which grew to be difficult in his 2nd term.
Barbary Pirates
North African Pirates seized US ships, so the US paid tribute.
Jefferson said “heck no”, leading to sporadic war from 1801-1805. Won some respect for the US
Napoleonic wars
France and UK seized neutral ships, pissing off the US.
The British navy kept kidnapping US sailors and forcing them to be British.
Chesapeake - Leopard Affair:
1807: British Leopard fired on US Chesapeake, killing and kidnapping some Americans.
People wanted war, but Jefferson resorted to diplomacy and neutrality.
Embargo Acts Plan
The US would ban Foreign trade, the British would lose US trade, and they would stop violating neutral rights.
In Reality, this was terrible for the US, as the British did not care, as they had other suppliers.
Devastated the US economy instead and was repealed by Jefferson in 1809 (One of Jefferson's key failures)
Dem-Rep supported by Jefferson won in 1808, and voted for James Madison.
He faced the same European issues that Jefferson did.
The Non-Intercourse Act of 1809
The US could now trade with all nations except the UK and France.
Macon's Bill #2
If either the UK/France respected the US at sea, they would stop trade with the other.
Napoleon agreed, and the US stopped trade with the UK, but they never stopped seizing US ships.
The War of 1812
Causes: Lack of British respect for US neutrality and British support of the Natives.
In the 1812 election, the North was Federalists and Anti-War Democrats vs Southern Democrats. Southern Democrats won.
War Hawks
War-eager Dem-Reps
Quids
Old Dem Reps who opposed the war.
Federalists, New England Merchants, and Quids opposed the war.
Madison bet on Napoleon's success (Spoiler: He was not Napoleon) in the land campaign in Canada;
The Canadian invasions were easily repulsed.
The US had Naval victories.
The Lake Erie battle, the Battle of Thames, and the Battle of Lake Champlain
Burning of the White House and the Capitol led to the writing of the Star Spangled Banner.
Battle of Horseshoe Bend
Andrew Jackson ended the Creek Nation's power
The Creek Nation was a UK ally
Battle of New Orleans
Happened after the war, the final war, a decisive US victory
Treaty of 1818 with the UK:
Shared fishing off Newfoundland,
Joint occupation of Oregon territory (This won't lead to problems)
Established the Northern US/Canada border as a straight line.
Florida
Due to Spanish troops being away from Florida, raiders would attack the US and return to Florida.
General Jackson led an aggressive campaign into Florida.
Fearing Florida's Seizure and busy with South America, Spain sold Florida to the US (Adams-Onis Treaty)
Monroe Doctrine
Concerned about Europe's surge in Monarchies, the UK and the US wanted to issue statements.
The US made its statement saying America shall not be further colonized. Mess with them, mess with America (First kinda departing from neutrality)
Monarchies were angry at the US, but couldn't do anything as the UK still backed the US.
Hartford Convention
Just before the war ended, radical federalists threatened several New England States to secede from the US.
Denounced Federalists, ending their power, set a later precedent for Southern Secession.
Led to the fall of the Federalist Party.
The War of 1812 ended.
The Treaty of Ghent ended the war
The British were weary after Napoleon, the US was well aware they stood no chance.
All prewar boundaries/territory returned. Never addressed grievances that led to war.
Effect: The US moved to industrial self-sufficiency.
4.5 Market Revolution: Industrialization
Throughout the 1800s, there were fewer rural farmers and more commerce and factory workers.
The Midwest saw development and became tied through military campaigns against Native Americans.
Canals were being built across the Midwest
Corn and Wheat have become the bread bowl of the US.
Innovations of Roads, Canals (Erie Canals), Railroads, Steam Engines, and the Telegraph.
States' rights advocates blocked federal spending on internal improvements despite the need.
In 1811, New York allowed shares of stock to be sold. Investors now only risked what they invested.
Lowell System
Textile mill system in Mass that hired young women with long hours.
Factory Workings
The North made extensive use of immigrants and child labor.
Artisans couldn’t compete with factories and were forced to seek employment.
More hours, less pay, and dangerous conditions led to discontent.
Union's Goal was to reduce the workday to 10 hours.
Obstacles: Immigrants as replacement workers, outlawing Unions, Economic depressions with high unemployment.
4.6 Market Revolution: Society and Culture
Subsistence farming went to commercial farming.
This was due to cheap western land, banks giving farmers low-interest loans, and canals and rails made trade with the east possible.
The cotton gin made cotton a dominant cash crop
Northern textile production relied on southern cotton.
Society
Modern Capitalism led to the end of self-sufficiency and growing interdependence.
Poor women began entering the workforce in cities, no longer on farms.
Factores jobs with tons of women were uncommon.
Rich women stayed at home,
Cult of Domesticity
Women should be wives and mothers, something pure, something to behave towards men
The gap between the poor and the rich increased a lot.
Wages improved, and social mobility increased compared to Europe.
Immigration
4 million immigrants from the 1820s to the 1850s.
This was due to faster ocean transport, Famines in Ireland, revolutions in Europe, and the US reputation as a land.
Most traveled to the North as the Southern economy depended on Slavery (Limited opportunities)
Due to rapid growth, slums expanded, became full of diseases and crime, and became crowded.
New cities such as Cincinnati and Chicago became key trade points.
Because of Organized Labor, goods became cheaper, improving quality of life.
Workers formed political parties & unions to protect their interests.
In 1842, Commonwealth vs Hunt
Peaceful Unions had the right to negotiate labor contracts with employers.
4.7 Expanding Democracy
Equality governed US society, opposed to Europe.
The United States had common tables, train carts, and clothes for all classes.s
Among the white majority, people believed in equality for white males.
Western States allowed universal suffrage for white males without religious or property requirements.
Politics
Voters, rather than legislators, now select candidates for office.
By 1832, most states let voters choose presidential electors rather than legislatures.
Other major changes included the Election of presidential electors, a two-party system, and third parties like the Anti-Masonic and Workingmen parties.
Andrew Jackson's Spoils Systemwas the Practice of replacing government jobs for party loyalty.
Spoils System: You support me, I give you a gov job
Andrew Jackson
Election of Jackson marked the “Era of the Common Man”
The 1824 election was a disaster and ended the Era of Good Feelings.
Anyone could be a presidential candidate - 4 people ran, Jackson won
Since votes were split, the US had an uneven Majority.
The decision came down to Congress.
Congress chose John Quincy Adams.
After Adams appointed Henry Clay (His supporter) as vice president, Jackson was Furious.
In addition, Internal improvements, money for public features, and the Tariff of Abominations (Highly protective Tariffs which killed the economy) happened.
4.8 Jackson and Federal Power
In 1828, Jackson won the election.
Jackson was different because he represented the Common man.
He went from a log cabin to a war hero and had rough manners.
Jackson was Jeffersonian. He opposed spending and debt.
He vetoed more bills than anyone before him.
Jackson's democracy did not expand to the Natives.
Indian Removal Act
Forced resettlement of thousands of Native Americans.
Cherokees challenged this in the courts.
Cherokee Nation vs Georgia said that they couldn’t sue in federal courts.
Worcester vs Georgia said Georgia had no force in Cherokee territory.
Jackson said screw that, and forced the Natives to move (Trail of Tears)
Nullification Crisis
Southerners were furious at the 1828 Tariff (Tariff of Abominations).
South Carolina attempted to nullify and even secede.
While Jackson supported states' rights, he was against disunion.
South Carolina tried to nullify both the 1828 and 1832 tariffs, arguing that they were unconstitutional.
Jackson mobilized and passed the Force Bill to let him act (Nullification and disunion are treason).
The treaty was compromised with a lower tariff.
The Bank of the US was privately owned but received federal deposits and served the public by cushioning the economy.
Many thought it served the wealthy, and Jackson thought it was unconstitutional.
Jackson vetoed Clay's bank Recharter bill.
Two-Party System
By now, the one-party system had given way to a 2 party system
Democrats were led by Andrew Jackson, and resembled the Democratic - Republicans
Whigs were led by Henry Clay and resembled the Federalists
Democrats were southern, and Whigs were mostly Northern.
The main issues were westward expansion and the economy.
After re-election, Jackson destroyed the bank by transferring funds to state banks (Pet Banks)
Jackson was persuaded to nominate Van Buren, and he won in 1836.
Buren Inherited the Panic of 1837.
He suppressed banks and required land to be bought with gold rather than banknotes.
In the 1840 election, Whigs solidified as a party
Harrison won and immediately died, so John Tyler took over.
4.9 The Development of an American Culture
The UK and other European countries influenced America's early culture.
Gradually developed its own US culture but looked to Europe for Influence
Little interest in Europe after the end of the Napoleonic wars and the War of 1812.
Transcendentalism
Transcendentalism was an 1800s philosophy that promotes spiritual thinking rather than science/materialism.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
The best-known transcendentalist. Was a writer/speaker urging individualism (Which led to nationalism).
America pushed to develop a unique identity, not imitate Europe.
Henry David Thoreau
A naturalist, best known for his book Walden. He was a conservationist who inspired Gandhi and MLK.
Utopia
Experimental, often religious settlements established in the early 19th century, aiming to create ideal, harmonious societies and address societal problems through communal living
Famous ones: Brooke Farms, New Harmony, Shakers, and Onienda
Arts
Painting became popular, with paintings of ordinary people doing everyday things.
Architecture was now Greek style (Think White House, Monument), emphasizing democracy.
Literature was Romantic and Patriotic stuff.
4.10 The Second Great Awakening
2nd Great Awakening
Another religious revival swept through the US in the 1800s.
Marked reassertion of Puritan teachings and new developments of Christianity.
Market revolution disruptions (People looked for settings outside formal churches),
Rationality (More emotions),
Industrialization (Feared growing greed + Sin)
Baptist and Methodist preachers traveled to attract thousands with their dramatic preaching.
The denominations' growth of new Christianities was fostered
Millennialism
The belief that the world would end with the Second Coming of Jesus. Led by William Miller
Mormonism
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, founded by Joseph Smith.
Based on the Book of Mormon. Birmingham Young brought them to Utah (New Zion)
4.11 An Age of Reform
Temperance
These people wanted a ban on Alcohol.
Increased alcohol consumption during this time led some to believe that alcohol was the cause of evil.
German and Irish immigrants opposed (alcohol was their major industry), but lacked major power.
Asylums
Criminals and the mentally ill faced horrible conditions in prison.
Dorothea Dix
Pioneer for asylums & the Mentally Ill.
She built many schools for the blind and deaf and led prison reform in Pennsylvania.
Education
Horace Mann
Leading advocate for public education
He made compulsory attendance and longer school years
Moral education and religious fervor fueled the growth of private colleges.
Women
Poor women worked, but the higher class followed the Cult of Domesticity.
Now, women leaders of the home took charge of the children.
The Declaration of Sentiments (Women should be allowed to vote) was issued at the Seneca Falls Convention (1848).
However, by the 1850s, women's rights were overshadowed by the Slavery issue.
Abolition
2nd Great Awakening led many to believe that Slavery = Sin.
American Colonization Society
Let Africans who wanted to go back to Africa go to Liberia
Mostly failed because lots of slaves who originally came from Africa had already died
Less radical movements of abolition included the Liberty Party and Abolition through politics
More radical movements were William Lloyd Garrison, the Liberator newspaper, and violent outbreaks for the immediate end to slavery (John Brown)
Frederick Douglass
A former slave who founded the journal North Star.
Harriet Tubman and Sojourner Truth helped escaped slaves
Nat Turner's rebellion (Slave rebellion) led to hundreds of slaves being killed, and the fear of future rebellion stopped antislave talks in the South.
4.12 African Americans in the Early Republic
Many in the South hoped for a quiet end to slavery.
Exhaustion of coastal soil and the import bank, as well as the rapid growth of the cotton industry + slavery, there would be no easy end.
Free African Americans
500 thousand free blacks in the US, half and half in the North and South.
In the North, they could have family and sometimes land. Also formed their churches.
However, freedom did not equal social/political equality, and they were not allowed skilled jobs.
In the South, some were emancipated through the US revolution, their fathers freed them, or they self-purchased through wages from skilled labor.
They could own property, but they were legally unequal to whites.
Lots of times, they were at risk of being kidnapped by slave traders.
Lots of slaves stayed in the South as their family was in bondage, and the North had fewer opportunities.
Resistance
Intentional sabotage/laziness was a common sign of protest.
More Runaways increased fugitive slave laws.
Gabriel Prosser, Denmark Vesey, and Nat Turner were all slave revolts that led to stricter slave codes.
4.13 The Society of the South in the Early Republic
Cotton dominated Southern Society.
The world depended on US cotton.
Southern’s Rigid Hierarchy (in order)
Big plantation owners (top)
These people had all the economic and political power.
Owned more than 100 slaves, more than 1000 acres, and a feudal society with a chivalry code.
These people were stupid wealthy; 1700 families produced half the world's cotton!
Small farmers
Around 10 slaves had hundreds of acres, but had a high education and were well-liked.
They resented the elites.
Non-slave owning whites
They worked in the fields and made up 75% of the population.
Most had the education of elementary schoolers and were subsistence farmers.
Still felt superior to black people, though.
Freed Slaves
6% of Black people in the South.
The American Revolution or self-purchase emancipated most.
Inferior by law, but could own property.
Slaves (very bottom)
75% of the population.
Literacy was outlawed, and many resisted and revolted.
Slavery posed the question to churches, often causing splits.
The reform movement had little impact on the South and felt increasingly threatened by the North's growing anti-slavery sentiment.
Summary
Comparison
The Democratic-Republicans supported agriculture and limited government, while the Federalists supported business/industry and strong government.
The Democrats would emerge from the Democratic-Republicans, while the Whigs emerged from the Federalists.
Continuity
Slavery continued and grew.
Conflicts continued with the Natives, and legislation was ineffective at preventing this.
Despite democracy spreading to the common man, African Americans and women still couldn’t vote.
Change
The emergence of a unique and homogenous national identity began growing, yet at the same time, sectional tensions were also growing, especially between the North and South concerning slavery.
The Age of Reform marked one of the first liberal/progressive movements in US history, winning major strides for women, the mentally ill, and other marginalized groups.
Jackson spread democracy to the common man.
The Revolution of 1800 marked the peaceful transfer of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans.
Causation
Due to the Federalist opposition to the War of 1812 and even their attempt to secede, they lost all popularity and ceased as a party.
The new means of transport led to the Market Revolution.
Due to its triumph in the War of 1812, the US was beginning to win global respect as an independent nation.