Americans in the 50s believed that their country was the best in the world, and communism was an evil that had to be stopped.
The thought was that a decent job, a home in the suburbs, and access to modern consumerism constituted a happy life.
Post WW2 Foreign Policy
The Truman Doctrine stated that the US must support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation (mostly by communist societies)
This was called Containment
To contain the Spread of Communism.
Marshall Plan
Economic recovery for Europe, so they won't turn to communism
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)was established as an Anti Soviet alliance.
The Warsaw Pact was a military pact similar to NATO. Europe was truly divided.
Japan was reconstructed and started having a booming economy under MacArthur.
China’s Nationalist Party lost the Chinese Civil War despite tons of aid from America.
Mao Zedong, under the Chinese Communist Party, won in 1949.
China is now communist.
Former colonies under Europe after WW2 chose to stay neutral, so they were deemed the Third World.
The US and the Soviets wanted soft power in these countries, as they had natural resources and potential military bases.s
The US enlisted the CIA to help establish its soft power. Successful attempts in Iran and Guatemala replaced anti-American governments, but they failed to assassinate Castro.
8.3 The Red Scare
The end of the war saw increased unemployment and rising prices.
New conservatism made it impossible to enact New Deal-style policies.
A wave of anti-union feelings arose after people were tired of strikes.
Truman ordered a government seizure of mines when a settlement with strikers could not be reached,
This alienated labor (Core Democratic Supporters), letting the Republicans win Congress in 1946.
Truman alienated Southern voters by pursuing a progressive Civil rights agenda.
In 1948, the President's Committee on Civil Rights issued a report calling for an end to segregation and poll taxes.
This angered the South.
The Taft-Hartley Act, passed by a republican Congress, restricted labor's right to strike, weakening the 1935 Wagner Act.
Truman was still reelected in 1948 despite his alienation of loyal supporters.
Congress enacted the GI Bill of Rights in 1944, providing veterans with money and education.
Helped many Americans achieve the American Dream and helped stimulate post-war economic growth
Senator Joseph McCarthy put America under the Red Scare, where people believed the Soviet Union had infiltrated the US government.
Fear of this led to the creation of the National Security Council and the CIA.
This is called McCarthyism
It was mostly just fear and propaganda of anti-communism.
8.4 Economy after 1945
1950, people wanted a president who was tough on communism, so they elected Republican Dwight D Eisenhower.
Eisenhower wanted to be conservative: balance the budget, cut federal spending, and ease government regulation of business.
This all mostly failed.
In 1953, Eisenhower enacted the policy of termination against Native Americans.
Ending tribes' federal support, liquidating reservations, and subjugating them to state law.
This plan left many tribes impoverished
Eisenhower also developed the Interstate Highway System
In part to quicken the movement of troops and nukes across the country
This promoted travel and the growth of suburbs
Military Industrial Complex
A Combination of military might and high profitability created a powerful alliance whose interests did not serve the people.le
JFK trounced Nixon in their television presidential debate in 1960, the first of its kind.
8.5 Culture after 1945
Postwar economic and technological changes led to rapid cultural shifts, sparking debates over the United States' values and identity.
Postwar Economic Boom & Consumer Culture
The U.S. experienced a post-WWII economic boom
Higher standard of living and the rise of the middle class.
The growth of suburbs (e.g., Levittown) and car culture changed daily life.
Expansion of consumer goods: televisions, home appliances, and new media.
Television became dominant, promoting a shared national culture and traditional family norms.
Challenges to the Conformity of the 1950s
Critics argued that 1950s culture emphasized conformity and materialism.
The Beat Generation (e.g., Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg) rejected mainstream values.
Youth began challenging cultural norms, helping set the stage for the 1960s counterculture.
1960s Counterculture Movement
The youth movement rejected mainstream values, embracing nonconformity, antiwar sentiment, and social justice.
Supported causes like civil rights, women’s rights, environmentalism, and LGBTQ+ rights.
Music festivals like Woodstock (1969) symbolized countercultural ideals.
Experimentation with drugs, communal living, and alternative lifestyles became more widespread.
Art, Literature, and Film
Cultural productions reflected societal concerns:
Cold War fears (e.g., Dr. Strangelove, Invasion of the Body Snatchers).
Critiques of conformity (Catcher in the Rye, Death of a Salesman).
Pop Art (Andy Warhol) challenged traditional ideas about art and consumerism.
Sci-fi and dystopian fiction explored themes of government control and nuclear anxiety.
Intellectual and Moral Debates
Rapid cultural change led to conflicts over values, including:
Civil Rights Movement
Feminist Movement (e.g., Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique, National Organization for Women)
Sexual revolution and debates over birth control, gender roles
8.6 Early Steps in the Civil Rights Movement (1940s and 1950s)
After WWII, African Americans and other marginalized groups increasingly challenged segregation and inequality, laying the foundation for the modern civil rights movement.
Legal Challenges to Segregation
The NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) led legal efforts to overturn Jim Crow laws.
Landmark victory: Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
The Supreme Court ruled segregation in public schools was unconstitutional.
Overturned Plessy v. Ferguson ("separate but equal").
Faced massive resistance in the South (e.g., "Southern Manifesto").
Direct Action Begins
Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956):
Sparked by Rosa Parks’ arrest.
Organized by local Black activists and led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr..
Demonstrated the power of nonviolent protest and grassroots organization.
Result: The Supreme Court ruled bus segregation unconstitutional.
Desegregation of Public Schools
Little Rock Nine (1957):
Nine Black students integrated Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas.
Faced hostility from white mobs and state officials.
President Eisenhower sent federal troops to enforce integration
First presidential intervention in civil rights since Reconstruction.
Civil Rights in the Courts & Federal Government
The Executive Branch began taking slow steps:
Truman desegregated the military in 1948 (Executive Order 9981).
Eisenhower supported desegregation reluctantly, but enforced court decisions.
Federal courts became a battleground for civil rights through lawsuits and constitutional challenges.
Tactics and Strategies
Focus on nonviolent protest, legal challenges, and moral persuasion.
The emergence of charismatic leaders like MLK, who promoted civil disobedience.
Organizations like the SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) and CORE began mobilizing.
Resistance to Civil Rights
Southern states resisted desegregation:
Created private "segregation academies" to avoid integrated schools.
Massive Resistance campaigns led by white politicians (e.g., Virginia Senator Harry Byrd).
Rise of white citizens’ councils and KKK violence.
8.7 America as a World Power
President Eisenhower renamed the policy of containment to liberation, saying that the US would free Eastern Europe from Communist Control.
Mutually Assured Destruction
You fire Nuke, I fire Nuke, we both die. So let's not fire nukes!
Deterrence (I have nukes) led to both having an arms race
Arms Race - a race to build bigger and better weapons and bombs
Domino Theory
If one country falls to communism, it would mean others would too.
The fear was: If South Vietnam fell, would Laos? Cambodia? Thailand? And then India?
Peace Corps
Provided teachers in agriculture, healthcare, transportation, and communications to third world countries in the process of nation-building.
Space Race
Competition between the Soviet Union and the US involving the development of Space technology
After Castro took over Cuba and became allied with the Soviets, John F Kennedy (JFK) launched the Bay of Pigs invasion, an invasion to overthrow Castro's government.
It failed badly
In 1962, Khrushchev (Stalin died in 1953) sent ICBMs (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles) to Cuba
This led to the Cuban Missile Crisis, where failed communication almost led to nuclear war.
Eventually, a compromise was agreed where Kennedy would remove missiles from Italy and Turkey (That could hit the Soviets), and Khrushchev would remove missiles from Cuba
8.8 The Vietnam War
In the 1954 Geneva Accords, Vietnam (like Korea) was split into a Northern Communist regime and a Southern Anti Communist Regime.
The US sabotaged reunification efforts to prevent communist takeover after the war.
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO, basically Southeast Asian NATO) was created for South Vietnam to counter communism.
Ngo Dinh Diem, South Vietnam's leader, became corrupt, and South Vietnamese Communist insurgents, unhappy with this, became the Viet Cong.
The CIA was committed to the policy of Containment.
The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution allowed the president to take any measures necessary to protect American Interests in Vietnam.
In 1965, LBJ ordered US troops onto Vietnamese soil.
This war, a brutal guerrilla war, was nothing like they've ever seen.
The Tet Offensive in 1968 was a huge North Vietnamese offensive that did serious damage.
Shortly after, in the My Lai Massacre, American soldiers massacred hundreds of innocent Vietnamese civilians.
Republican Richard Nixon was elected in 1968, and in 1973, pulled troops out of Vietnam, partly due to massive protests in America (Hippie Movement)
5 months later, the South Vietnamese capital, Saigon, fell, and Vietnam went under communist rule
Congress passed the War Powers Resolution to prevent any future president from involving the military in another undeclared war
8.9 The Great Society
New Frontier
Progressive policies by JFK that increased unemployment benefits, expanded social security, increased the minimum wage, and aided farmers.
Congress enacted the Equal Pay Act in 1963
Requiring that men and women receive equal pay for equal work
Great Society
Lyndon B Johnson's (LBJ) social agenda changed the government the most since the New Deal.
War on Poverty
LBJ passed through Congress many relief programs,
The Economic Opportunity Act provided 1 billion for poverty relief
The Department of Housing and Urban Development is increasing federal aid to low-income renters
Established Medicare and Medicaid
8.10 The African American Civil Rights Movement (1960s)
Key Goals
End racial segregation and discrimination.
Secure voting rights for African Americans.
Achieve social and economic equality.
Strategies
Nonviolent protests and civil disobedience.
Grassroots organizing and community mobilization.
Legal challenges to segregation and discriminatory laws.
Major Events and Campaigns
Sit-ins (1960s):
Nonviolent protests at segregated lunch counters.
Freedom Rides (1961):
Challenged segregation in interstate bus terminals.
Birmingham Campaign (1963):
Highlighted police brutality and gained national attention.
March on Washington (1963):
Martin Luther King Jr.’s "I Have a Dream" speech demanded jobs and freedom.
Civil Rights Act of 1964:
Landmark legislation outlawing discrimination.
Selma to Montgomery March (1965):
Pushed for voting rights; "Bloody Sunday" shocked the nation.
Voting Rights Act of 1965:
Eliminated discriminatory voting practices like literacy tests.
Key Figures
Martin Luther King Jr.
Advocate for nonviolent resistance; the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) leader.
Malcolm X:
Advocate of Black empowerment and self-defense; represented a more militant perspective.
Rosa Parks sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott by refusing to give up her bus seat.
John Lewis:
Leader in the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC); pivotal in the Selma marches.
Key Organizations
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC):
Led by Martin Luther King Jr, focused on nonviolent resistance.
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC):
Grassroots organizing, particularly in voter registration.
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE):
Instrumental in organizing Freedom Rides.
NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People):
Focused on legal challenges to segregation.
Challenges and Opposition
Violent resistance from white supremacists and law enforcement.
Internal divisions within the movement (nonviolence vs. militancy).
Continued systemic racism despite legislative victories.
Impact and Legacy
The Civil Rights Act (1964) and the Voting Rights Act (1965) fundamentally reshaped U.S. laws.
Inspired subsequent social justice movements (e.g., women’s rights, LGBTQ+ rights).
Highlighted the ongoing struggle for racial equality in America.
8.11 The Civil Rights Movement Expands
The Civil Rights Movement began to broaden in the 1960s, moving beyond just African American civil rights to include other marginalized groups.
This period saw a shift from nonviolent protest to more militant and assertive approaches and the rise of identity politics.
African American Civil Rights and Evolving Strategies
Black Power Movement:
Frustrated with the slow pace of change, leaders like Stokely Carmichael called for racial pride, economic empowerment, and self-determination.
Malcolm X:
Advocated for Black nationalism and self-defense; critical of nonviolent tactics.
Black Panther Party (1966):
Founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale;
Focused on community programs (free breakfast, healthcare), and openly carried firearms for self-defense.
Women's Rights Movement
Betty Friedan – The Feminine Mystique (1963):
Sparked the second-wave feminist movement.
National Organization for Women (NOW) (1966):
Pushed for workplace equality and reproductive rights.
Title IX (1972):
Banned sex discrimination in federally funded education programs.
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA):
Passed by Congress but failed state ratification.
Chicano and American Indian Movements
United Farm Workers (UFW)
Nonviolent protests for Latino agricultural workers' rights (e.g., grape boycott).
Chicano Movement:
Promoted Mexican-American identity, culture, and educational reform.
American Indian Movement(1968):
Protested federal policy;
Occupations like Alcatraz (1969) and Wounded Knee (1973) highlighted Indigenous rights.
LGBTQ+ Rights Movement
Stonewall Riots (1969):
Sparked the modern LGBTQ+ rights movement.
Rise of pride parades and advocacy for the decriminalization of homosexuality.
Intersectionality
Different groups fighting for civil rights recognized shared struggles but also had unique goals.
Shift in tone:
From peaceful protest to more assertive and confrontational activism.
Government response:
Mixed – Some legislation was passed but was often slow or resisted at the local/state levels.
8.12 Youth Culture of the 1960s
New Left political agenda
Wanted the elimination of poverty and racism, and an end to Cold War politics.
Free Speech Movement
Long protest on UC Berkeley campus for advocacy of Free Speech and stuff when the university blocked political activities.
Hippies, advocates of free-spiritedness and nonconformity during consumerism, became known as counterculture.
Congress passed the Clean Air Act of 1955, the first law controlling the use of airborne contaminants.
Roe vs Wade in 1973 enabled women to obtain abortions nationwide within the first trimester of pregnancy (This was struck down in 2022)
The new left, counterculture, and feminists opposed American participation in the Vietnam War.
Some Americans wanted America to return to its traditional level based on religious principles.
This conservative resurgence began in the 1970s.
8.13 The Environment and Natural Resources from 1968 to 1980
The late 1960s and 1970s saw a growing environmental movement, driven by concerns about pollution, resource depletion, and industrial impact.
This period led to key environmental policies and activism.
Environmental Awareness
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) highlighted the dangers of pesticides, sparking the environmental movement.
Earth Day (1970) became a major event, symbolizing the rise of environmental consciousness.
The EPA was established in 1970 to regulate and enforce environmental laws.
Key Environmental Laws
National Environmental Policy Act (1970):
Required environmental reviews for federal projects.
Clean Air Act (1970) & Clean Water Act (1972):
Reduced pollution and improved air and water quality.
Endangered Species Act (1973):
Protected species are at risk of extinction.
Energy Crisis
The 1973 Oil Embargo caused gas shortages, leading to energy conservation efforts and the National Energy Act (1978).
The debate over nuclear energy grew after the Three Mile Island incident (1979).
Automobile and Urban Issues
The government imposed fuel efficiency standards on cars in response to the energy crisis.
Suburban growth raised concerns about urban sprawl and land use.
Environmental Activism
Groups like the Sierra Club and Friends of the Earth pushed for environmental reforms and better protections.
Environmental justice emerged as a concern for low-income and minority communities impacted by pollution.
Key Themes
The government played a larger role in regulating environmental policies.
Activism and conservation efforts grew, focusing on protecting natural resources and reducing pollution.
8.14 Society in Transition
The 1960s and 1970s were a time of social upheaval in the U.S., marked by civil rights advancements, changing gender roles, and the rise of new social movements.
Civil Rights and Social Movements
African American Civil Rights:
Key achievements included the Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965),
Later shifts focused on Black Power and economic issues.
Women’s Rights:
The Feminine Mystique (1963) sparked the Women’s Liberation Movement, which pushed for equal rights and work opportunities.
LGBTQ+ Rights:
The Stonewall Riots (1969) led to a new wave of LGBTQ+ activism for equality.
Changing Family Structures
Feminism: Betty Friedan’s work encouraged women to seek careers and education beyond traditional roles.
Divorce Rates: Increased as women gained independence through education and work.
Youth Culture: The hippie movement and Woodstock (1969) reflected rebellion against mainstream values.
New Religious and Political Movements
Growth of alternative spiritual practices, like Transcendental Meditation.
Conservatism: A conservative backlash emerged, helping elect Ronald Reagan in 1980.
Economic and Technological Shifts
Post-Industrial Economy: The economy shifted from manufacturing to services like technology and healthcare.
Economic Inequality: The wealth gap widened as the rich gained more during this period.
Television and Space: TV became a major cultural influence,
The Apollo 11 moon landing (1969) showcased American technological success.
Summary
Comparison
Martin Luther King Jr. and groups like the SCLC and SNCC used nonviolent protest, while others like Malcolm X and the Black Panthers supported more militant or separatist approaches.
Presidential approaches to Civil Rights varied: Eisenhower was cautious, Kennedy was more symbolic, and Johnson pushed significant legislation (Civil Rights Act of 1964, Voting Rights Act of 1965).
Containment under Truman (Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, Berlin Airlift) vs. Brinkmanship under Eisenhower and détente under Nixon.
Proxy wars like Korea (1950s) vs. Vietnam (1960s–70s) — similar goals, but differing public support and outcomes.
Continuity
Continued commitment to contain communism globally (from Truman to Carter).
Ongoing participation in alliances and international organizations: NATO, UN, SEATO.
Despite progress, systemic racism and economic disparities persisted through the era.
Even after the Civil Rights laws, de facto segregation and economic inequality remained challenges.
Anti-communist fears persisted from the McCarthy era into the Vietnam War era.
Americans remained concerned about domestic subversion and loyalty.
Change
The federal government took a more active role in ensuring civil rights, economic security (Great Society), education, and healthcare.
Shift from New Deal-style economic programs to Great Society reforms.
The 1960s saw youth-led counterculture movements (antiwar, free speech, feminism).
In the 1970s, backlash contributed to the rise of conservatism, setting the stage for Reagan.
The Vietnam War, the Pentagon Papers, and the Watergate Scandal led to growing cynicism and mistrust of the federal government.
Causation
Post-WWII tensions between the U.S. and USSR over ideology, nuclear weapons, and sphere of influence led to decades of geopolitical conflict.
Events like the Iron Curtain, Berlin Blockade, and NATO formation hardened the divide.
Caused by WWII experiences, the Great Migration, and media coverage of racial violence.
Sparked by legal victories (Brown v. Board), grassroots activism, and landmark legislation.
Caused by the Domino Theory, belief in containment, and support for anti-communist regimes.
Escalated under Johnson, domestic protests and costs led to Vietnamization and eventual withdrawal.
Post-WWII economic boom led to suburban growth and consumer culture.
By the 1970s, stagflation, oil crises, and industrial decline challenged economic stability.